Renal Excretion of Paracetamol | Experiment

Renal Excretion of Paracetamol | Experiment Paracetamol, known as acetaminophen in the USA, is one of the most commonly used analgesic and antipyretic drugs available over-the-counter. Its common name derives from the full chemical name: para-acetyl-amino-phenol, with the chemical formula C8H9NO2Â  and a molecular weight of 151.17. Paracetamol does not have any significant anti-inflammatory action and therefore cannot be accurately described as a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), as was once thought. Its mechanism of action is still poorly understood but some studies have suggested that it inhibits a variant of the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme COX-1, which has been designated COX-3 (Swierkosz et al., 2002). Paracetamol acts mainly in the central nervous system and endothelial cells, rather than in platelets and immune cells. Boutaud and colleagues (2002) hypothesised that this may be explained by the high levels of peroxides found in the latter cell types, which inhibit the action of paracetamol. There has been some debate on the subject, with other researchers proposing an inhibitory action against COX-2 (Graham Scott, 2005). Further research is required to fully elucidate the mechanism of action at the molecular level. Following oral administration and absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, paracetamol enters the blood and is distributed throughout the body. It is metabolised by enzymes in the hepatocytes of the liver and the majority is converted to inactive metabolites by conjugation with sulphate or glucuronide. This is then filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and into the urine, via active renal tubular secretion. A small portion of paracetamol remains unaltered and passes into the urine via glomerular filtration and passive absorption (Morris Levy, 1984). There is also a small proportion of the paracetamol that is metabolised by the cytochrome P450 system, which results in the formation of cysteine or glutathione conjugates and mercapturic acid conjugates. These products of oxidative metabolism are also excreted renally (Andrews et al. 1976). Paracetamol has a low therapeutic index, so the therapeutic dose is very close to the toxic dose. Toxicity can occur following a single large dose (>10g) or with chronic lower doses (4-5g/d) and is usually seen as hepatotoxicity, which can result in death within several days (Wikipedia). Toxicity occurs when the enzymes responsible for catalysing sulphate and glucuronide conjugation become saturated, forcing metabolism to be increasingly dependent upon the cytochrome P450 system. This results in formation of a toxic metabolite, N-acetyl-p-benzo-quinone imine (NAPQI), which is normally mopped up by binding to the sulphydryl group of glutathione to form inactive conjugates and mercapturic acid. Toxicity occurs when the glutathione supply becomes exhausted and NAPQI binds indiscriminately to molecules within the cell, such as membranes, to cause cell damage and death, seen as acute hepatic necrosis. Major pathway for normal metabolism Minor pathway via cytochrome P450 system produces toxic metabolite (NAPQI), shown in red. Normally this is detoxified by binding to glutathione. Toxicity occurs when pathways 1 and 2 are overloaded and NAPQI binds to molecules of the cell, causing damage. Modified from Rang et al. 1995. The aim of this experiment is to investigate the renal excretion of paracetamol, by measuring the levels of paracetamol metabolites in human urine over 6 hours following an oral dose of 500mg. The total excretion will be assessed using the spectrophotometric method. From this data the elimination rate constant (KE) and the half-life (T1/2) will be calculated. Qualitative analysis of the various metabolites will be conducted using appropriate chemical identification techniques. METHOD A standard stock solution of paracetamol was prepared at 1mg/cm3 and dilutions were made to give a range of known concentrations. 1 cm3 of the paracetamol solution was added to 1 cm3 blank urine and 4 cm3 4M HCl, and mixed thoroughly. A blank duplicate was also prepared, using water instead of urine. After an hour in a boiling water bath the tubes were cooled and water added, up to 10 cm3. 1 cm3 of this hydrolysed urine solution was added to 10 cm3of colour forming solution, mixed and allowed to stand for 40 minutes. The absorbance of each solution was measured, using the spectrophotometer, zeroing the instrument using the drug free urine sample in between solutions. This produced the readings for the calibration curve. The collected timed urine samples were then processed in the same way, adding 1 cm3 water instead of paracetamol solution. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Known concentrations of paracetamol underwent spectrophotometry to measure the absorbance at 620nm. These results were used to produce a calibration curve (figure 3). The timed urine samples were then analysed following the same protocol and the absorbance at 620nm was used, in conjunction with the calibration curve to ascertain the concentration of paracetamol in the urine. Unfortunately, half of the samples produced absorbances outside the range of the calibration curve. Because this curve is non-linear, extrapolation and dilution cannot be used to accurately deduce the concentration of paracetamol in the urine. For the purposes of this report the concentration for these samples has been declared as ‘greater than 800ug/cm3’. This is not very satisfactory and further experiments must be done to extend the range of the calibration curve to the maximum absorbancy of the timed samples. The values of KE and T1/2 have been calculated to demonstrate the procedure, but are ina ccurate and will need revising once accurate concentrations have been established form the calibration curve. Table 1: Timed urine sample Mean absorbance 620nm Conc. ug/cm3 Vol. Urine (ml) Total drug (ug of paracetamol) Excretion rate mg/h 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 hour 0.256 192 245 47040 47 2 hours 1.918 >800 50 40000 40 3 hours 1.769 >800 38 30400 30.4 4 hours 1.028 >800 55 44000 44 5 hours 0.349 246 135 33210 33.2 6 hours 0.255 192 160 30720 30.7 Table 1 contains the absorbance results of the timed urine samples and the deduced concentration of paracetamol in the urine, as well as the hourly excretion rate. The total amount of paracetamol excreted over the 6 hour period was 225.3mg, which is 45% of the orally administered dose. Due to problems discussed above, this is an underestimate of the true percentage of dose excreted renally, which has been found to be 55-70% by other studies (Steventon et al., 1996). When log of the excretion rate (equivalent to total drug excreted per hour) is plotted against time, a linear plot should be achieved, from which KE can be estimated. This is shown in Figure 4, but is likely to need revising. The slope of this straight line equates to : KE /2.303, which gives a value for KE of 0.094. Using the formula: T1/2 =0.692/ KE , the value of T1/2 = 7.36 hours. This states that it takes the body 7.36 hours to excrete half of the drug administered. This is longer than the 1-4 hours usually quoted for paracetamol (Rang et al. 1995), and is not surprising given the underestimation of the paracetamol urine concentration. With proper calibration, this would be expected to decrease to nearer the previously found results. There were no results for the qualitative studies for metabolite composition, but it would be expected that sulphate and glucuronide conjugates would constitute the majority of the sample, with a smaller quantity of unchanged paracetamol, cysteine/glutathione and mercapturic acid metabolites. These results only represent one individual on one day and replications of this experiment are crucial. Nutritional status, recent alcohol consumption, ethnic background, concurrent drug usage and illness must all be taken into account as factors that may affect paracetamol metabolism and excretion (Riordan Williams, 2002, Patel Tang, 1992). Further analysis of paracetamol excretion Hepatotoxicity and drug interactions Table 2 shows how concurrent use of phenobarbital, an anti-epileptic drug, can increase the severity of liver damage caused by paracetamol administration and its subsequent metabolism. Table 2: Effect of Phenobarbital on paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity Treatment Dose of Paracetamol (mg/kg) Severity of liver necrosis None3751-2+ Phenobarbital3752-4+_________ This occurs due to metabolism of phenobarbital by enzymes of the P450 cytochrome system, which results in upregulation of their production. As explained in the introduction (see fig. 2), P450 enzymes also metabolise paracetamol, to form the toxic metabolite NAPQI. This is normally a minor pathway but as the amount of P450 enzymes available increases, the activity of this pathway also increases. This results in a larger than normal amount of NAPQI, which is mopped up and inactivated by glutathione. Glutathione supplies will eventually run out, which occurs sooner if the person is malnourished. When this happens the toxic metabolite binds to cell components, causing necrosis. To prevent this occurring, such as in cases of overdose, N-acetylcysteine can be given (Routledge et al., 1998), which is required for glutathione synthesis and helps to boost it. This allows a greater amount of the toxic metabolite to be mopped up and reduces cell damage. Paracetamol metabolism following hepatotoxicity Table 3: Plasma paracetamol concentrations (ug/cm3) PatientsPlasma paracetamol4 hrs after12hrs after Half life (h)ingestioningestion _______________________________________________________________ no liver damage (18)2.9 +/= 0.3163 +/=20 29.5 +/=6 liver damage (23) 7.2+/= 0.7296 +/= 26 124 +/=22___ Table 3 shows that, in a study, the ability of patients with liver damage to eliminate paracetamol from the blood is much decreased, compared to healthy people. This is seen by the prolonged half-life and the high levels of paracetamol in the plasma. The plasma level does come down by 12 hrs, which indicates that there is enough functional liver reserve to metabolise some of the drug, but the level is still very high. To ascertain whether it is just conjugation that is affected, or whether all the pathways are affected equally it would be necessary to quantify the levels of different metabolites in the blood and urine. As conjugation is responsible for the majority of metabolism, damage to all systems will still show up as affecting conjugation the most. In theory reduced clearance of a substance is useful for monitoring the severity of liver damage, but in the case of paracetamol it would be unwise as it could potentiate the hepatotoxic effects and worsen the liver condition. It is also unnecessary as there are already a number of reliable blood tests for liver function and damage. REFERENCES Andrews, R. S., Bond, C. C., Burnett, J., Saunders, A. Watson, K. 1976 Isolation and identification of paracetamol metabolites. J Int Med Res 4, 34-9. Boutaud, O., Aronoff, D. M., Richardson, J. H., Marnett, L. J. Oates, J. A. 2002 Determinants of the cellular specificity of acetaminophen as an inhibitor of prostaglandin H(2) synthases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99, 7130-5. Graham, G. G. Scott, K. F. 2005 Mechanism of action of paracetamol. Am J Ther 12, 46-55. Morris, M. E. Levy, G. 1984 Renal clearance and serum protein binding of acetaminophen and its major conjugates in humans. J Pharm Sci 73, 1038-41. Patel, M., Tang, B. K. Kalow, W. 1992 Variability of acetaminophen metabolism in Caucasians and Orientals. Pharmacogenetics 2, 38-45. Rang, H. P., Dale, M.M., Ritter, J.M. 1995 Pharmacology: Churchill Livingstone. Riordan, S. M. Williams, R. 2002 Alcohol exposure and paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity. Addict Biol 7, 191-206. Routledge, P., Vale, J. A., Bateman, D. N., Johnston, G. D., Jones, A., Judd, A., Thomas, S., Volans, G., Prescott, L. F. Proudfoot, A. 1998 Paracetamol (acetaminophen) poisoning. No need to change current guidelines to accident departments. Bmj 317, 1609-10. Steventon, G. B., Mitchell, S. C. Waring, R. H. 1996 Human metabolism of paracetamol (acetaminophen) at different dose levels. Drug Metabol Drug Interact 13, 111-7. Swierkosz, T. A., Jordan, L., McBride, M., McGough, K., Devlin, J. Botting, R. M. 2002 Actions of paracetamol on cyclooxygenases in tissue and cell homogenates of mouse and rabbit. Med Sci Monit 8, BR496-503. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracetamol.

The United States Must Abandon Nuclear Power Essay -- Argumentative Pe

The United States Must Abandon Nuclear Power The United States must re-examine many policies previously accepted as reasonable, especially its own national energy policy. As the largest overall and per capita energy consumer in the world, the U.S. needs to decide upon a reasonable source of energy for the foreseeable future, especially since its energy needs will increase dramatically during that time. With political instability likely to remain the norm in the Middle East, oil continues to be an energy source of questionable reliability; in addition, current estimates of worldwide reserves suggest we may in fact run out of oil entirely in the next fifty years. Natural gas reserves are in fairly short supply too, and costs limit its uses as well. Another major alternative, coal, has become the nation’s leading energy source (providing more than 55% of the country’s electricity), and projected supplies could last for hundreds of years (Sweet 49). However, the tremendous output by coal-fired plants of CO2—the major â€Å"greenhouse† gas—along with other atmospheric pollutants makes it equally as undesirable as oil. The final major source of energy on which the U.S. currently depends is nuclear power, and many (including the author of a Time magazine article in the April 29, 1991 issue) see it as a viable alternative, provided solutions are found to a few â€Å"minor† difficulties. Once the facts are known, though, it becomes clear that nuclear power (both fission and fusion) is not the answer to our current U. S. energy dilemma, primarily because it presents great risks and creates tremendous pollution hazards, and, further, because it also will continue to support the status quo of huge multi-national corporations dominating e... ...Dangers of Nuclear Power. London: New English Library, 1986. Croall, Stephen. Nuclear Power for Beginners. New York: Pantheon Books, 1983. Curtis, Richard, and Elizabeth Hogan with Shel Horowitz. Nuclear Lessons: An Examination of Nuclear Power’s Safety, Economic and Political Record. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1980. Faulkner, Peter, ed. The Silent Bomb. New York: Random House, 1977. Greenwald, John. â€Å"Time to Choose,† Time 29 April 1991: 54-62. Shrader-Frechette, K. S. Nuclear Power and Public Policy: The Social and Ethical Problems of Fission Technology. Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1980. Stoler, Peter. Decline and Fail: The Ailing Nuclear Power Industry. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company,1985. Sweet, William. The Nuclear Age: Atomic Energy, Proliferation and the Arms Race. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Inc., 1988.

Acting Against Personal Belief to Comply With Other’s Expectations Essay

It is impossible to find a situation in which the individual is not faced with having to act according to the expectations of others. Children react to the expectations of their parents, students must respond to the expectations of fellow students and teachers, employees are guided by the expectations of the employer, and coming full circle, parents feel the expectations of their children. The individual’s moral response to acting in accordance with other’s expectations is very situational. In some circumstances the response is minor. An adolescent may firmly believe good grades are pointless, yet comply with the expectations of parents and teachers. In some cases the response may be much greater. An otherwise honest college student may feel a great deal of remorse when he or she gives in to the demands of a â€Å"significant other† or fraternity to â€Å"share† answers on a take-home exam. The worst-case scenario is the life or death situation. A true pacifist draftee must make the decision to kill someone as the expectations of his fellow soldiers are to obviously protect them from injury or death. Fortunately I have not had to face this sort of dire quandary. The qualifying question is whether the expectation of others goes to what they think is best for me or what is best for the group. Presuming that others honestly have my best interest in mind, I would certainly give weight to their thoughts. This is particularly important when their wisdom and knowledge of a situation is greater than mine. My â€Å"moral compass† has developed from the examples of my family and greater environment, and I alone will have the satisfaction or shame in either living up to or abandoning my beliefs. This was not always easy. I remember breaking a neighbor’s garage window playing ball. I could have run with the other kids, but I told him what had happened because I knew from my parents that it was the right thing to do, an ideal to live up to, and short of endangering the lives of others, I would never give up my ideals. The idea of giving up my ideals is repugnant. I live by my principals and I respect others ideals and principals. Similarly I cannot force my beliefs on anyone, although someone may learn from my example as I have learned from others. I do not believe in bending my ideals to make others happy, besides I could not live with my conscience knowing that I gave up what I believe in to make someone else or an institution happy. Honesty and morality is really all one has; once one compromises up their beliefs and ideals, one loses his sense of self. Perfection is something few, if any of us will ever achieve. At some point in our lives we may succumb to temptation or other factors and temporarily place our sense of morality â€Å"on the shelf†. For instance I may firmly believe in doing the best job possible yet be forced to cut corners by an employer who is under pressure to make a production deadline. I do not have the luxury of quitting and finding another job, and in truth my work is of adequate quality as opposed to the excellent quality I want to produce. My work output will affect the entire company. If I hold up production to meet what I believe is a â€Å"better† standard of quality other workers will suffer the consequences of my decision and make less money because of the slowdown. Similarly, I may have family and teachers who expect me to maintain an excellent GPA. Instead, I find it more important to work to defray the costs of tuition and thus have time to only produce a â€Å"C+† average. In this situation I am the only one affected by my decision. Ethical decisions are not made in a vacuum. In the first example I may have â€Å"compromised† my strong belief in producing quality, and act according to others’ expectations but I can live with it because my actions affect others and my compromise did no harm. In the second situation I cannot live to others expectations particularly when my actions have no effect on them. In either situation the beliefs may differ; what will be important will be my response. Ultimately I must make my decisions based on the effect upon my sense of self as well as what I believe to be the common welfare.

The Domestication of Maize in America

The Domestication of Maize in America Maize (Zea mays) is a plant of enormous modern-day economic importance as foodstuff and alternative energy source. Scholars agree that maize was domesticated from the plant teosinte (Zea mays spp. parviglumis) in central America at least as early 9,000 years ago. In the Americas, maize is called corn, somewhat confusingly for the rest of the English-speaking world, where corn refers to the seeds of any grain, including barley, wheat or rye. The process of maize domestication radically changed it from its origins. The seeds of wild teosinte are encased in hard shells and arranged on a spike with five to seven rows, a spike that shatters when the grain is ripe to disperse its seed. Modern maize has hundreds of exposed kernels attached to a cob which is completely covered by husks and so cannot reproduce on its own. The morphological change is among the most divergent of speciation known on the planet, and it is only recent genetic studies that have proven the connection. The earliest undisputed domesticated maize cobs are from Guila Naquitz cave in Guerrero, Mexico, dated about 4280-4210 cal BC. The earliest starch grains from domesticated maize have been found in the Xihuatoxtla Shelter, in the Rio Balsas valley of Guerrero, dated to ~9,000 cal BP. Theories of Maize Domestication Scientists have put forward two main theories about the rise of maize. The teosinte model argues that maize is a genetic mutation direct from teosinte in the lowlands of Guatemala. The hybrid origin model states that maize originated in the Mexican highlands as a hybrid of diploid perennial teosinte and early-stage domesticated maize. Eubanks has suggested a parallel development within the Mesoamerican interaction sphere between lowland and highland. Recently starch grain evidence has been discovered in Panama suggesting the use of maize there by 7800-7000 cal BP, and the discovery of wild teosinte growing in the Balsas river region of Mexico has lent support to that model. The Xihuatoxtla rockshelter in the Balsas river region reported in 2009 was discovered to contain domesticated maize starch granules in occupation levels dated to the Paleoindian period, more than 8990 cal BP. That suggests that maize may have been domesticated by hunter-gatherers thousands of years before it became a staple of peoples diets. The Spread of Maize Eventually, maize spread out from Mexico, probably by the diffusion of seeds along trade networks rather than migration of people. It was used in the southwestern United States by about 3,200 years ago, and in the eastern United States beginning about 2,100 years ago. By 700 AD, maize was well established up into the Canadian shield. DNA studies suggest that purposeful selection for various traits continued throughout this period, leading to the wide variety of species today. For example, 35 different races of maize have been identified in pre-Columbian Peru, including popcorns, flint varieties, and varieties for specific uses, such as chicha beer, textile dyes, and flour. Agricultural Traditions As maize was spread outside of its roots in central America, it became part of already existing agricultural traditions, such as the Eastern Agricultural complex, which included pumpkin (Cucurbita sp), chenopodium and sunflower (Helianthus). The earliest direct-dated maize in the northeast is the 399–208 cal BC, in the Finger Lakes region of New York, at the Vinette site. Other early appearances are Meadowcroft Rockshelter Archaeological Sites Important to Maize Archaeological sites of importance to the discussion of maize domestication include Central America:  Ã‚  Xihuatoxtla Shelter  (Guerrero, Mexico), Guila Naquitz (Oaxaca, Mexico) and  Coxcatlan Cave  (Tehuacan, Mexico)Southwest USA:  Bat Cave  (New Mexico),  Gatecliff Shelter  (Nevada)Midwest USA: Newt Kash Hollow (Tennesee)Northeast USA: Vinette (New York), Schultz (Michigan), Meadowcroft (Pennsylvania) Some Recent Maize Studies This glossary entry is a part of the About.com Guide to  Plant  Domestications,  and part of the  Dictionary of Archaeology. Carpenter Slavens J, and Snchez G. 2013.  Los cambios ambientales del Holoceno Medio/ Holoceno Tardà ­o en el desierto de Sonora y sus implicaciones en la diversificacià ³n del Yuto-aztecano y la difusià ³n del maà ­z.  Dilogo Andino  41:199-210. Ellwood EC, Scott MP, Lipe WD, Matson RG, and Jones JG. 2013.  Stone-boiling maize with limestone: experimental results and implications for nutrition among SE Utah preceramic groups.  Journal of Archaeological Science  40(1):35-44. Freeman, Jacob. Crop Specialization, Exchange and Robustness in a Semi-arid Environment. Human Ecology, John M. Anderies, Andrea Torvinen, et al., Volume 42, Issue 2, SpringerLink, January 29, 2014. Gil AF, Villalba R, Ugan A, Cortegoso V, Neme G, Michieli CT, Novellino P, and Durn V. 2014.  Isotopic evidence on human bone for declining maize consumption during the little ice age in central western Argentina. Journal of Archaeological Science 49(0):213-227. Grimstead DN, Buck SM, Vierra BJ, and Benson LV. 2015.  Another possible source of archeological maize found in Chaco Canyon, NM: The Tohatchi Flats area, NM, USA.  Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports  3:181-187. Haas J, Creamer W, Huamn Mesà ­a L, Goldstein D, Reinhard KJ, and Vergel Rodrà ­guez C. 2013.  Evidence for maize (Zea mays) in the Late Archaic (3000-1800 B.C.) in the Norte Chico region of Peru.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  110(13):4945-4949. Hart JP, and Lovis WA. 2013. Reevaluating What We Know About the Histories of Maize in Northeastern North America: A Review of Current Evidence. Journal of Archaeological Research  21(2):175-216 Killion TW. 2013.  Nonagricultural cultivation and social complexity.  Current Anthropology  54(5):596-606. Matsuda, Masahiko. Upland Farming Systems Coping with Uncertain Rainfall in the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar: How Stable is Indigenous Multiple Cropping Under Semi-Arid Conditions? Human Ecology 41, ResearchGate, December 2013. Reed PF, and Geib PR. 2013.  Sedentism, Social Change, Warfare, and the Bow in the Ancient Pueblo Southwest.  Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews  22(3):103-110. Snchez-Pà ©rez S, Solleiro-Rebolledo E, Sedov S, de Tapia EM, Golyeva A, Prado B, and Ibarra-Morales E. 2013.  The Black San Pablo Paleosol of the Teotihuacan Valley, Mexico: Pedogenesis, Fertility, and Use in Ancient Agricultural and Urban Systems.  Geoarchaeology  28(3):249-267. Shillito, Lisa-Marie. Grains of truth or transparent blindfolds? A review of current debates in archaeological phytolith analysis. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, Volume 22, Issue 1, SpringerLink, January 2013. Thompson V, Gremillion K, and Pluckhahn T. 2013.  Challenging the Evidence for Prehistoric Wetland Maize Agriculture at Fort Center, Florida.  American Antiquity  78(1):181-193. VanDerwarker A, Marcoux J, and Hollenbach K. 2013.  Farming and Foraging at the Crossroads: The Consequences of Cherokee and European Interaction Through the Late Eighteenth Century.  American Antiquity  78(1):68-88. Warinner C, Garcia NR, and Tuross N. 2013.  Maize, beans and the floral isotopic diversity of highland Oaxaca, Mexico.  Journal of Archaeological Science  40(2):868-873.

Literature Review of Emotional Intelligence in Managers Essays

Literature Review of Emotional Intelligence in Managers Essays Literature Review of Emotional Intelligence in Managers Essay Literature Review of Emotional Intelligence in Managers Essay The authors of the two journals review and provide valuable information on the work, life and emotional management of managers and leaders and how it is being intertwined with and embedded in the managing processes, implications on the employees? moods and emotions. The keyword in the two papers is emotional intelligence. However, it is arguable that they focused heavily on the aspects of emotional intelligence and leadership, and ignored other psychological forces that influence an individual. The research will be analysed closely by reviewing their arguments and findings. Humphrey et al. , (2008) research agrees on the use of emotional intelligence and emotional labour by leaders, how leaders? emotions influences the moods and emotions of their employees. The paper develops 15 propositions that provide an insight on how leaders perform emotional labour, leading with deep acting and surface acting. They concluded that success is obtained through leading with emotional labour, though sometimes costly especially for those engaged in surface acting. Trainings for leaders and managers on how to express their emotions effectively may help make the workplace more productive and enjoyable for both leaders and followers. Brotheridge and Lee, 2008 research provides an insight on the impact the expressed emotions of managers have on their work units „emotional climate, their employees? motions and the organization? s emotional health and overall success. The authors agree that at the heart of all working relationships are emotions (Burkitt, 1997, 2002; De Rivera and Grinkis, 1995); thus, emotions are the substance of managerial work and argues that leaders need to be knowledgeable on both emotional and social control and expectations that arise from gender roles. They concluded emotions are essential for managerial work and managers are expected to manage their emotions and their e mployees?. These two journals are almost completely similar as the authors review and argue on about the same issue – management with emotions, use of emotional intelligence. Brotheridge and Lee, (2008) argue that emotions and emotional skills are essential for day to day managerial work and leaders should learn to express their emotions more as that will result in more benefits for them instead of conducting business in a non-emotional â€Å"business-like manner†. Brotheridge and Lee, (2008) agree with Humphrey et al. , (2008) that managers must attend to their wn emotions and express them appropriately or experience declines in their personal emotional health. The influence the moods and emotions displayed by managers have on their subordinates? feelings, moods and emotion as well was highly emphasized in the two papers. The authors both agree that to a large extent, for a successful result, managers may need to engage in emotional labour. Managers may have to display a wide var iety of emotions and will require judgement about which emotion to display at a particular time depending on the situation which arises. Brotheridge and Lee, (2008) agrees with Humphrey et al. (2008) argument that managers who engage in deep acting (i. e. attempt to feel the emotions that they are expressing) are more likely to transmit their emotions to their employees than managers who are engaging in surface acting or are not regulating their emotional expression. Humphrey et al. , (2008) and Brotheridge and Lee, (2008) argue that leaders must be emotionally intelligent to be effective. As stated by Humphrey et al. 2008 proposition 10: Leaders high on emotional intelligence will be better at recognizing when situational demands call for performing emotional labour (2008: 161). But again, looking at the concept of leadership and management, the similarities and differences, it can be argued that leadership and management are two different, thus, leadership does not require emotional intelligence and it is best used for management. Arguably, we can say that even though managers and leaders are expected to lead with e motions, different people carry with them different personalities. If not properly trained on how to manage emotions and when to use, a manager may get carried away on when to use his/ her emotions and could be seen as a weakling. The employees working with these managers also have a role to play. A manager can only get a successful result, when he gets around studying and understanding the personalities of the employees under him to avoid a clash of personality. Also, pressure from the higher level management and home affairs can affect managers and leaders and may be displayed in their attitude to work. Humphrey et al. (2008) and Brotheridge and Lee, (2008) agree that managers would require to perform emotional labour. However, it can be argued that emotional labour increases emotional stress and causes emotional exhaustion which could result in reduced levels of employees? job dissatisfaction (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002). Furthermore, cultures vary in their expectations for regulating and expressing emotions in the workplace (Cooper, Doucet am p; Pratt, 2003). In conclusion, Humphrey et al. , (2008) and Brotheridge and Lee, (2008) arguments were very valid and provided a valuable knowledge. Management and leadership though could be different, but are two complimentary systems of action and both require use of emotional intelligence to operate successfully. Employees? feelings and emotions are influenced through emotional contagion. Managers need to manage their personal emotions so that they are expressing positive emotions and not result in a decline in their emotional health. They must be attentive to their emotional reactions when making decisions, and the effect of their emotions on the quality of these decisions (Kida et al. 2001; Lurie, 2004). I believe gender has no factor in excelling in emotional management. I agree with Humphrey et al. , (2008) instead of telling managers and other leaders not to express their emotions, training on how to express their emotions effectively should be taken into consideration. This may help them use either deep acting or genuine emotional expressions and avoid the harmful psychological effects that accompany surface acting.

Digital Technology Plays a Key Role in Education Essay

Digital Technology Plays a Key Role in Education - Essay Example From this essay it is clear that  the use of digital technology in education is not a new trend, but is one that has prevailed for centuries. Much of the development in the fields of science and technology can be attributed to the use of digital technology in education. Calculators have been used in educational institutions ranging from primary, through the high school, secondary school, college, and university level for many decades. Modern calculators come with a variety of functions that can help the mathematicians and scientists perform complex calculations in the blink of an eye. As technology has progressed over the years, it is seen that the implementation of many digital appliances has come into play for the educational systems. Previously it was believed that learning was a passive process, which could only be achieved if the learner was able to transmit his knowledge swiftly.  As the report discusses  the use of digital technology is not limited to create interest amo ngst the learners but it is also being effectively used so that the learners can benefit from these resources. It has been found that mathematics is a subject that requires several aspects of the brain to function simultaneously.  The use of hand-held devices and personal computers can give an idea to the students regarding the complexities of the subject. In other words, technology is a way through which knowledge can be transferred easily and efficiently.

The Dimensions of Interprofessional in Nursing Practice Essay

The Dimensions of Interprofessional in Nursing Practice - Essay Example The collaborative process has also been defined as a dynamic process which requires that professional boundaries be surpassed if each participant is to contribute to developments in patient care while appropriately bearing in mind the qualities and skills of the other professionals (Canadian Physiotherapy Association 2009). However, nurses have long held the view that failure to implement inter-professional has led to the fragmentation of care, patient dissatisfaction and poor outcomes (Leathard, 2004). Therefore, there is a need for inter-professional working in nursing practice to deliver integrated quality healthcare services, improve patient satisfaction, and save more lives. Inter-professional working in nursing practice refers to the collaboration of the healthcare team to ensure the delivery of high quality patient care services. It was acknowledged by the General Medical Council that healthcare is increasingly provided by multidisciplinary team and this collaboration brings m ore improvement to patient care (WHO, 1999). The present reflective commentary is based on a HIV positive patient who was admitted to my ward via A&E. Using this patient; I will analyze and evaluate the contribution of nursing and other members within the inter-professional collaboration process. Gibbs reflective cycle will be used to reflect my experiences of working in an inter-professional team. The cycle will help me identify the decision making and problem solving processes and discuss the effectiveness of the contribution of each member in the inter-professional practice in the light of existing relevant literature. Description I was performing my duties in the ward on a morning/afternoon shift with my mentor when a 32 years old, Vietnamese female immigrant, named Mrs. Yiu Suh was wheeled in from A&E. Mrs. Yiu Suh is a pseudonym for the patient in accordance with the 2008 Professional Code of Conduct on confidentiality promulgated by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC 2008 ) which states that all names and identifying trace to the patient must be changed. Therefore, any resemblance to a ward, person, relative or trust is purely coincidental. In order to gain Mrs. Yiu Suh’s complete medical history, an initial admission process was carried out. This was undertaken by reviewing the patient’s medical notes which revealed that the patient had diarrhoea and a mouth thrush that failed to heal despite trying several home remedies. The report also provided information which suggested that the patient had not been eating well due to her mouth condition and had lost a lot of weight within a very short period of time. Three weeks prior to her admission to the ward, the patient visited her General Physician (GP) in the community for the same complaints. Her GP treated her and advised her to visit again in case there was no improvement. Mrs. Yiu Suh refused to visit her GP again as she was given leaflets on HIV and was recommended an HIV test, which she ignored. Later on the patient confessed to me that she feared the worst because she had been a commercial sex worker. It was during the course of her sex trade that she met her husband, Mr. Charles Robbins, who brought her